Jehovah’s Witnesses During and After the Genocide Against the Tutsi in Rwanda

A Research Project on Psychosocial Factors Related to Faith, Forgiveness, and Family

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Logo text: Faith Forgiveness Family - Jehovah's Witnesses; Kwizera Kubabarira Umuryango - Abahamya ba Yehova

About the Research

Rwanda, known as the Land of a Thousand Hills, is marked by its verdant landscape—and its profound historical trauma. Like the rivers that flow through its flourishing hills, Rwanda’s people continue their efforts toward healing. Jehovah’s Witnesses During and After the Genocide Against the Tutsi in Rwanda: Psychosocial Factors Related to Faith, Forgiveness, and Family (JW-RWA) is the first nationwide study of a single religion in post-Genocide Rwanda. The religious community participated in an anonymous survey that provides insights into past impacts of the Genocide as well as present efforts to maintain faith, extend and receive forgiveness, and cope with Genocide memories within the family. The researchers, who are affiliated with the religious community, collaborated with an academic advisory committee to contribute to the scientific literature on the past and present impact of the Genocide. The JW-RWA study offers insights to researchers and to all who share the goals of forgiveness, reconciliation, and genocide prevention.

Academic Advisory Committee

Munyurangabo Benda, PhD

Lecturer, Centre for Black Theology
The Queen’s Foundation
UNITED KINGDOM

Raffaella Di Marzio, PhD

Professor of Psychology of Religion
ITALY

Laetitia Nyirazinyoye, PhD

Professor in Public Health
University of Rwanda
RWANDA

John K. Roth, PhD

Professor Emeritus of Philosophy
Claremont McKenna College
UNITED STATES

Peter Suedfeld, PhD

Professor Emeritus of Psychology
University of British Columbia
CANADA

Investigators

Valens Nkurikiyinka

Principal Investigator
Organisation Religieuse des Témoins de Jéhovah
RWANDA

Jolene Chu

Co-Principal Investigator
World Headquarters of Jehovah’s Witnesses
UNITED STATES

Sponsored by

Organisation Religieuse
des Témoins de Jéhovah

Kigali, Rwanda

Supported by

World Headquarters
of Jehovah’s Witnesses

New York, United States

Approved by

Rwanda National
Ethics Committee

(RNEC)

Reviewed by

Ministry of National Unity
& Civic Engagement

(MINUBUMWE)

Research Report

Jehovah’s Witnesses During and After the Genocide Against the Tutsi in Rwanda (JW-RWA) examined the past and current impact of the Genocide and investigated the interrelated themes of faith, forgiveness, and family.

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JW-RWA Report by Section

Executive Summary

The study Jehovah’s Witnesses During and After the Genocide Against the Tutsi in Rwanda: Psychosocial Factors Related to Faith, Forgiveness, and Family (JW-RWA) is the first nationwide, post-Genocide survey of a single religious group in Rwanda. Conducted in 2023, the research explored the experiences of Jehovah’s Witnesses before, during, and after the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi, focusing on psychosocial dimensions such as faith, forgiveness, trauma, and wellbeing.

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Introduction

This report presents findings from the JW-RWA study—a nationwide, cross-sectional survey conducted in Rwanda in spring 2023. The study investigated the demographic, religious, and psychosocial characteristics of Jehovah’s Witnesses in Rwanda, with a sample of 13,590 respondents across all 30 districts. The research responds to the Rwandan government’s call for religious communities to document their Genocide-era histories and aims to contribute to scholarship on post-conflict societies.

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Methodology

The JW-RWA study examined the psychosocial situations of Jehovah’s Witnesses in Rwanda in relation to the Genocide against the Tutsi in 1994. It employed a nationwide, cross-sectional survey conducted in 2023 of baptized adult members in congregations of the religious community. The survey instrument was structured around five thematic areas: religious beliefs, general attitudes, Genocide-related experiences, trauma coping strategies, and intergenerational communication. It included both standardized psychometric measures and custom questions adapted to the study population.

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Faith

This section of the JW-RWA report focuses on respondents’ individual beliefs and practices as Jehovah’s Witnesses in Rwanda, both first-generation converts and those raised in the faith from childhood. Drawing on psychological and sociological frameworks, the research explored dimensions of religious conversion, commitment, and orientation. The study applied Saroglou’s model of believing, bonding, behaving, and belonging to analyze how individuals adopt and practice their faith. It also incorporated Allport’s intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity framework to assess motivations behind religious affiliation.

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Forgiveness & Prosocial Behaviors

The JW-RWA study investigated dimensions of forgiveness and prosocial behaviors among Jehovah’s Witnesses in Rwanda, with a focus on post-Genocide recovery. Drawing on psychological and religious frameworks, the research examined three types of forgiveness—interpersonal, divine, and self-forgiveness—alongside measures of compassionate love, community support, and helping behaviors. The survey utilized validated instruments adapted to the study population and included demographic comparisons across gender, age, and Genocide experience.

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Genocide & Trauma

This section of the JW-RWA study report examines the experiences of respondents during the Genocide against the Tutsi in 1994, focusing on Genocide situations, trauma events, and helping behaviors of those who were Jehovah’s Witnesses at the time of the Genocide and those who converted later. Drawing from a large, demographically diverse sample, the research investigated residential patterns and changes in household composition before and soon after the Genocide.

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Subjective Social & Psychological Wellbeing

The JW-RWA study explored the subjective social and psychological wellbeing of Jehovah’s Witnesses in Rwanda in the aftermath of the Genocide against the Tutsi. Using ecological systems theory and identity theory as frameworks, the research examined the past self (centrality of the Genocide and posttraumatic stress symptoms); the future self (temporal orientation and view of the future); the narrative self (dialogue about the Genocide); family identity (family satisfaction and functioning); and collective identity (perceived changes after conversion and religious coping).

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Conclusion

The JW-RWA study presents quantitative findings on the demographic, religious, and psychosocial characteristics of Jehovah’s Witnesses in Rwanda, with a focus on experiences before, during, and after the Genocide against the Tutsi in 1994. Conducted in 2023, the nationwide survey included 13,590 respondents, representing half of the adult baptized Jehovah’s Witnesses in Rwanda.

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More Information

Appendix A. Survey in English (page 429) $

Appendix B. Survey in Kinyarwanda (page 457) $

Additional JW-RWA Report Appendices (page 487) $

Corrigendum (page 515) $

Key Findings

Explore highlights from the Jehovah’s Witnesses During and After the Genocide Against the Tutsi in Rwanda (JW-RWA) report. To learn more, click on each topic below.

About the Study

Why was the study conducted?Who conducted the study?  How was the study conducted?How did the survey approach questions related to ethnicity during the Genocide?What steps were taken to adhere to ethical standards and apply bias mitigation?

Becoming Jehovah’s Witnesses

What is the religious background of those who became Jehovah’s Witnesses in Rwanda? What has been the growth pattern of Jehovah’s Witnesses in Rwanda during pre- and post-Genocide periods?  Why do individuals become Jehovah’s Witnesses?How long do individuals study the Bible with Jehovah’s Witnesses before they are baptized as Witnesses?To what extent do Jehovah’s Witnesses agree on doctrinal beliefs?What characterizes the religious identity and commitment of Jehovah’s Witnesses?

Nonviolence & Political Neutrality

What were the consequences for Jehovah’s Witnesses who maintained their position of political neutrality and nonviolence in the pre-Genocide period?As a minority group, distinct among Rwandan religions, what risks did Jehovah’s Witnesses face during the Genocide?What do eyewitnesses report about Jehovah’s Witnesses’ acts of nonviolence and political neutrality during the Genocide?How did Jehovah’s Witnesses’ position of nonviolence and political neutrality during the Genocide against the Tutsi compare with the era of the Nazi genocide?

During the Genocide Against the Tutsi

What traumatic events and role-situations were experienced during the Genocide?What kinds of helping behaviors during the Genocide were reported?What kinds of helping activities did children engage in during the Genocide?How did household composition change immediately after the Genocide?What proportion today live near where they were located during the Genocide?

Thinking & Talking About the Genocide

How often do Jehovah’s Witnesses think about the Genocide against the Tutsi?How much do Jehovah’s Witnesses think the Genocide affected their worldview, family, and personal lives?How interested are Jehovah’s Witnesses in young people learning about the history of the Genocide against the Tutsi?What is it like to talk about the Genocide and past traumas?What scriptures help when thinking about the Genocide against the Tutsi?

Reconciliation & Resilience

How is forgiveness of others, by God, and of self perceived?How is compassionate love viewed in the faith community?What role do congregations have in promoting resilience and support?

Social & Psychological Wellbeing

How have interpersonal relationships changed since becoming Jehovah’s Witnesses?How has subjective wellbeing changed since becoming Jehovah’s Witnesses?How do Jehovah’s Witnesses view the cohesion and communication of their family?To what degree do those in the Jehovah’s Witness community experience posttraumatic stress and posttraumatic growth?How do Jehovah’s Witnesses view the past compared with the present and future?What characterizes the quality of hope among Jehovah’s Witnesses?

Academic Events

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Conference Presentations

Featured Papers

Benda, M. (2025, October 20–24). Addressing historical gaps and promoting healing: The case for investigating Jehovah’s Witnesses in post-Genocide Rwanda [Paper presentation]. 17th Biennial Meeting of the International Association of Genocide Scholars, Johannesburg, South Africa.

In light of existing research on religious communities during the Genocide against the Tutsi, this paper discusses the academic contribution of the nationwide survey research of Jehovah’s Witnesses in Rwanda. By documenting the genocide situations and post-Genocide psychosocial characteristics of those in the minority religion (most of whom converted to the religion after the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi), the study addresses a void in the empirical literature, highlights the unique stance of Jehovah’s Witnesses during the Genocide, and explores their individual and collective role in fostering unity and reconciliation across generations. The presenter’s prior research on Christian and Muslim conduct during the Genocide against the Tutsi, as well as on post-Genocide intergenerational dialogues, provides a backdrop for evaluating the research potential for this recent study of the Jehovah’s Witness community in Rwanda.

Nyiranzinyoye, L. (2025, October 20–24). The post-genocide role of a religious community in resilience and reconciliation [Paper presentation]. 17th Biennial Meeting of the International Association of Genocide Scholars, Johannesburg, South Africa.

The Faith, Forgiveness, and Family study provides a large cross-sectional data set from a nationwide sample population with a similar age, gender, and geographic distribution as the general population. The data enables investigation of gender and generational differences in psychosocial factors and posttraumatic effects in Rwanda. Statistical findings show the interrelated influences of perceived community support, changes in interpersonal and conflict relationships, and reciprocal giving, together with hope, compassionate love, posttraumatic stress, and posttraumatic growth. The paper discusses the contribution religious groups can make to fostering personal and societal post-Genocide healing and reconciliation.

Nkurikiyinka, V. (2024, November 14–16). Nonviolence and its consequences: Documenting Jehovah’s Witnesses’ resistance during a period of ban and the Genocide [Paper presentation]. 6th International Conference on Genocide, Sacramento, CA, United States.

The principal investigator of the nationwide study Jehovah’s Witnesses During and After the Genocide Against the Tutsi in Rwanda: Psychosocial Factors Related to Faith, Forgiveness, and Family (JW-RWA) describes the research methodology and objectives, the approach to designing the survey instrument, and how the research team overcame challenges in fielding the survey in Rwanda, where 70 percent of the population lives in rural areas with limited digital connectivity and literacy. After discussing the demographic composition of the study population, the paper provides a brief historical overview of religious and social characteristics of the faith community of Jehovah’s Witnesses that impacted their personal and collective experiences before, during, and after the Genocide. The Witness community teaches a nonviolent, nonpolitical ethic, a position that resulted in the political suppression of this small group during the Habyarimana years and was in evidence during the 1994 Genocide. In the aftermath of the Genocide, the faith community experienced significant numerical increase. Its present demographic composition mirrors that of Rwandan society as a whole. Rwandan Witnesses face the same challenges as does Rwandan society as a whole in healing the wounds and ruptured social ties of the past. A large body of scientific research has demonstrated the general link between religious faith and psychosocial benefits. Survey results from the JW-RWA study provide a religious profile of respondents, including their motivations to adopt the religion, and how their faith affects their relationships, ability to cope with post-Genocide effects, and perspective on the past, present, and future. The study offers correlational (but not causal) conclusions by investigating the relationships between religious identity, community support, and prosocial behaviors and thereby provides insights into the potential role of religious communities in providing mutual aid and fostering reconciliation and personal and group resilience in post-conflict settings.

Chu, J. (2024, August 9–11). Harm and healing: Re-forming génocidaires and healing survivors through forgiveness among Jehovah’s Witnesses in Rwanda [Paper presentation]. 2024 Annual Meeting of the Association for the Sociology of Religion (ASR), Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

This year marks the 30th anniversary of the Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda. Genocidal regimes coerce the populace to adopt a genocidal identity that supersedes or subordinates all other social ties, including religious, moral, even familial bonds. Recovery from these ruptures and reconciliation in Rwandan society is still a work in progress three decades later. This paper presents preliminary findings from the nationwide quantitative study Jehovah’s Witnesses During and After the Genocide Against the Tutsi in Rwanda: Psychosocial Factors Related to Faith, Forgiveness, and Family. The anonymous online survey covered the following areas: (a) demographic composition, religious orientation, and motivations for affiliation with the Witness community; (b) genocide situations and other traumatic events and related psychosocial factors; (c) relationships between identity, support, and helping behavior; (d) interplay between various types of forgiveness and other prosocial attributes; and (e) perceived family satisfaction and intergenerational communication about genocide. The paper first provides an overview of the study sample (n = 13,590). About 90 percent of respondents became Witnesses after the 1994 genocide. The present Witness community is demographically similar to Rwanda as a whole, including those with a range of genocide experiences and those born post-Genocide. Thus, Witness congregations today include people who were targeted for harm (Tutsi and politically moderate Hutu), those who participated in harmdoing, those who witnessed violence, and those who attempted to help or rescue victims and thus faced harm themselves. Survey responses indicate that many filled multiple roles. The sample includes respondents who are currently imprisoned for participation in genocide. The paper then presents findings from several psychosocial measures. Although forgiveness is an age-old theological and philosophical concept, recent psychosocial research has investigated various types of forgiveness as useful approaches in seeking to heal ruptured social ties and facilitate social reconciliation. Three kinds of forgiveness will be discussed—self, divine, and interpersonal. This paper also examines survey findings regarding the relative salience of these three types of forgiveness among survey respondents. The paper concludes with a brief discussion of outcome indicators, such as (a) posttraumatic distress/growth; (b) sense of temporality toward past, present, or future; and (c) community support, which helps assess the degree of intrapersonal and interpersonal healing. These data can illuminate the relationship between forgiveness and healing, with implications for mental health counseling. The study was sponsored by the Organisation Religieuse des Témoins de Jéhovah du Rwanda and was approved by the Rwanda National Ethics Committee and reviewed by the Ministry for Civic Engagement and Reconciliation. It is the first nationwide study of an entire religious community in post-genocide Rwanda. The presenter is the co-principal investigator of the study.

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Publications

Seminega, T., & Nkurikiyinka, V. (2025). ‘Political neutrality’ during the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda: A case study of Jehovah’s Witnesses. In Z. Knox & E. B. Baran (Eds.), Minority religions and religious tolerance: The Jehovah’s Witness test (pp. 145–159). Bloomsbury Academic. http://doi.org/10.5040/9781350372269.ch-9

Chu, J., & Seminega, T. (2022). Jehovah’s Witnesses as “citizens of the Kingdom of God.” In S. E. Brown & S. D. Smith (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of religion, mass atrocity, and genocide (pp. 269–279). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429317026-30

Chu, J. (2019). The practice and consequences of apolitical Christianity by the Rwandan Jehovah’s Witness community before and during the genocide. Religion – Staat – Gesellschaft, 20(1/2), 223–254.

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Chu, J. (2004). God’s things and Caesar’s: Jehovah’s Witnesses and political neutrality. Journal of Genocide Research, 6(3), 319–342.

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