Conference Presentations

In the aftermath of genocide, forgiveness—whether viewed from a diplomatic, philosophical, religious, ethical, or psychological perspective—is widely seen as integral to the process of the recovery, reconciliation, and reconstruction of post-conflict society. This paper adds to the exploration of forgiveness as a potential means to promote prosocial cognitions, feelings, and behaviors. It presents the views of those directly affected by the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda, whether as perpetrators, supporters, eyewitnesses, victims, helpers, or a combination thereof. As reported in Faith, Forgiveness, and Family (JW-RWA), a nationwide online survey of the Rwandan Jehovah’s Witness community was conducted. Over 90% of respondents joined the Witness community post-Genocide; 66% had firsthand knowledge of the Genocide. The survey measured respondents’ attitudes toward three interrelated aspects of forgiveness: interpersonal forgiveness as a personality trait; divine forgiveness, the perception that God has forgiven the transgressor; and the lesser-known aspect of self-forgiveness (not to be confused with self-exoneration), which involves reconciliation with self and requires a change in behavior or reparation. Findings are presented in light of the distinctive ways in which women and men experienced the Genocide, as well as differences in family composition, genocide situations, religious orientation, and posttraumatic growth.

A large, quantitative study of a minority religion in post-Genocide Rwanda contributes to the fields of religion and genocide. The Rwanda National Ethics Committee approved a nationwide online survey open to all baptized adult Jehovah’s Witnesses. The faith community is known for their nonviolent, neutral stance in political conflicts and is one of the fastest growing religions in Rwanda. Their congregations bring together converts from diverse backgrounds, including survivors who were targeted for genocide, rescuers who helped targeted persons, and perpetrators who were convicted of genocidal crimes. Findings from the spring 2023 survey show how these disparate groups differ in their perceived religious orientation, identity, support, and motivations to convert, depending on their gender, generation, and genocide situation.

Religion appeals to individuals by satisfying different cognitive, emotional, moral, and social needs. Traumatic events test the limits of religions’ ability to fill those needs. In Rwanda, one of the most Christian nations in Africa, religious communities have faced the enormous task of rebuilding trust, faith, and cohesiveness after the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. Two years after the Genocide, the faith community of Jehovah’s Witnesses, which lost 400 congregants to the slaughter, had more than doubled in size. The present community numbers over 31,000. A nationwide online survey conducted among Rwandan Jehovah’s Witnesses in the spring of 2023 included those who converted to the minority religion as adults. The paper provides a demographic profile of the Witness community with a breakdown of post-Genocide increase by gender, generational cohort, and genocide situation (e.g., those targeted to be killed, former génocidaires, and those who fled and later returned to the country). The study examines religiosity and individual motivations for becoming and remaining part of the Witness community. Also included are measures for intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity—both of which could offer perceived benefits to converts with different genocide profiles and lifetime traumas. The paper discusses key findings that contribute to research on religious affiliation and religious orientation, as well as religiously motivated nonparticipation in mass violence.

Shared religious identity can provide the basis for ingroup social support and reinforcement of common values and beliefs. Shared religious identity can also inhibit or encourage discriminatory, even violent, acts toward outgroup others. Almost 30 years later, religious organizations are challenged to foster social ties among those with conflicted pasts not easily forgotten or forgiven. Only a few studies of rescue and helping during the Genocide have factored in religious identity, such as Jennie Burnet’s recent study on Rwandan Muslims. In the spring of 2023, a nationwide online survey of Jehovah’s Witnesses represents the first attempt to gather data on Genocide-era and present-day helping behavior among those who are now Witnesses. Respondents include those who were Witnesses in 1994 and those who adopted the faith or are second-generation Witnesses; also included are those who self-identify as having been convicted of genocide crimes. This retrospective study examines the relationship between religious self-identity and helping behavior or harmdoing among adults and minors during the Genocide. Respondents also report on helping exchanges among congregants during the past year, and perception of the faith community as a source of support and resilience. Group comparisons will include differences based on gender, generational cohorts, and genocide situations.

Significant historical and sociological studies have examined the role of religion during the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda. However, no studies have attempted a large quantitative survey of the Genocide and post-Genocide situations, psychosocial characteristics, and conversion patterns among an entire religious community. This paper describes some practical challenges faced and met by the research team while conducting a nationwide digital survey of the Rwandan community of Jehovah’s Witnesses, a minority religion of about 30,000 that is missing from previous scholarly studies. The online survey sought to include respondents both among those who experienced the Genocide as Witnesses and those who adopted the faith or were born later and are 18 years and older. According to government census data, the Witness community is demographically similar to the general population, with many rural residents (about 30% in 2022) having limited or no access to electricity. Low income levels also decrease access to data and electronic devices. To mitigate the digital gap among the study population, nationwide measures were undertaken to (a) quantify digital literacy and digital connectivity gaps, (b) provide devices and data hubs on loan to ensure equal opportunity to access the survey, and (c) ensure on-location technical support for those unfamiliar with digital tools. This presentation describes the mobilization of logistical, material, and human resources to equalize accessibility to the online survey with the objectives of maximizing the response rate and achieving a highly representative data sample.

Although online surveys have significant advantages over traditional modes of quantitative study, executing large-scale online research projects in developing countries presents multiple technical challenges, due to lack of internet connectivity and digital literacy. A 2023 study of a minority community, Jehovah’s Witnesses, in post-Genocide Rwanda illustrates possible solutions to methodological challenges for researchers in developing post-conflict countries. This presentation describes the research team’s choice of a survey platform that has been used in developing countries, which allows response inputs in online and offline internet connectivity modes and can accommodate different devices and browsers. The discussion also describes steps taken to preserve the scientific integrity of data collected in the field and prevent data loss. The country-wide study design included all adult Jehovah’s Witnesses in the sample criteria. However, low literacy rates and varying familiarity with digital devices could have skewed the sample to urban and younger respondents. The Rwandan National Ethics Committee, familiar with these challenges, approved the study proposal’s provision to provide technical help to respondents to read the survey or navigate electronic devices. Although this provision would increase the sample size, measures were needed to avoid introducing undue influence on respondents’ answers. Thus, the research team included technical support personnel trained to maintain strict scientific integrity while supporting the study across Rwanda during the entire survey fielding period. Leveraging community traditions of cohesion and volunteerism also proved essential to successful execution of the study.

One’s identity and religion are formed within a historical and cultural context. The 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda where some eight hundred thousand (800,000) Tutsi were killed, mostly by machete, fractured every aspect of this largely Christian country. The majority of Tutsi victims were reported to have been killed by fellow believers on church properties. While individuals of different faiths heroically took a moral stance to counter massacres, church leaders were found culpable with sins of omission and commission. During the almost thirty years post-Genocide, Rwandans have undertaken the challenging road to regain their faith—in God, in religion, in humanity. In 1994 the minority religious group of Jehovah’s Witnesses (JWs) in Rwanda were a mere 2,500, with an estimated 400 killed during the Genocide. Since then, some 30,000 more Rwandans became JWs, making it one of the fastest growing religions in Rwanda. With this historical-cultural backdrop, a 2023 nationwide survey investigated religious and identity factors of this faith community. The Rwanda survey contained some measures that were used in studies of JWs in Hungary and Kazakhstan. For our cross-cultural consideration: What attracts individuals to become and remain JWs? Are the religious motivations of JWs more intrinsic, extrinsic, or both? What perceived psychological and interpersonal changes do JWs have after their religious conversion? Other findings from the Rwanda study presented here are as follows: Shared support influences group identity, so how do JWs view the social support of their congregations? Additionally, temporal orientation shifts over time, which allows individuals gradually to turn their attention away from past traumas, toward a perhaps more positive future. As a religious people, how much do JWs think about and how do they feel about the past, present, and future?

In the spring of 2023, a nationwide online survey of the Jehovah’s Witness community in Rwanda included respondents who were Jehovah’s Witnesses during the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda, as well as those who became Witnesses after surviving, witnessing, or perpetrating the Genocide and those who were born post-Genocide. Survey questions assessed levels of PTSD and posttraumatic growth; temporal orientations toward past, present, and future; and self-reported measures of hope. Respondents also answered questions specific to their present religious affiliation as Jehovah’s Witnesses, such as what scriptures they think of when pondering their genocide experiences and how they view interpersonal, self-, and divine forgiveness. This paper reports findings based on the combination of psychosocial measures and religious orientation measures. Comparative data analysis examines how religious belief in a coming millennium, divine justice, resurrection, and other doctrines held by Jehovah’s Witnesses may or may not affect the psychosocial impact of the Genocide on survivors, eyewitnesses, and former perpetrators.